All three factors lower the actual UF compared to the WLTP UF. We find that the current WLTP UF parameters are too optimistic about real-world UF since long-distance driving was missing in earlier estimates, actual charging is less frequent than commonly assumed and real-world all-electric ranges are lower than WLTP ranges. These two markets cover about 40% of PHEV in Europe. We fitted the existing WLTP UF function to empirical PHEV usage for 1,385 private PHEV from Germany and 10,872 company cars from Germany and the Netherlands. The chosen UF function resembles the WLTP UF function, but varies one parameter. For this purpose, real-world data on PHEV usage is taken to determine empirical parameters for generic UF functions. We aimed to provide UF estimates that resemble the WLTP functional form but are based on empirical PHEV usage data. Both market contain about 40% of the PHEV in stock in the EU27. ![]() ![]() Here, we cover private and company cars from Germany, the single largest PHEV market in Europe and company cars from the Netherlands. All other markets have less than 30,000 PHEV in stock (as of beginning 2021).
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